Battle of Queenston Heights in the War of 1812

Battle of Queenston Heights in the War of 1812 The Battle of Queenston Heights was fought October 13, 1812, during the War of 1812 (1812-1815) and was the first major land battle of the conflict. Seeking to cross the Niagara River, American troops under Major General Stephen van Rensselaer encountered a variety of difficulties. Finally landing part of his command, van Rensselaer engaged British forces under Major General Isaac Brock. In the resulting fighting, American troops suffered a defeat after militia forces refused to cross the river and a British counterattack isolated those on the Canadian side. The battle marked the end of a poorly managed campaign for the Americans. Fast Facts: Battle of Queenston Heights Conflict: War of 1812 (1812-1815)Dates: October 13, 1812Armies Commanders:United StatesMajor General Stephen van Rensselaer6,000 menGreat BritainMajor General Isaac BrockMajor General Roger Hale Sheaffe1,300 menCasualties:United States: 300 killed and wounded, 958 capturedGreat Britain: 14 killed, 77 wounded, and 21 missing. Native American casualties 5 killed and 9 wounded Background With the outbreak of the War of 1812 in June 1812, American forces began marshaling to invade Canada. Intending to strike at several points, the American efforts were soon put in jeopardy when Brigadier General William Hull surrendered Detroit to Major General Isaac Brock in August. Elsewhere, General Henry Dearborn remained idle at Albany, NY rather than move forward to capture Kingston while General Stephen van Rensselaer was stalled on the Niagara frontier due to a lack of men and supplies (Map). Major General Sir Isaac Brock. Photograph Source: Public Domain Returning to Niagara from his success at Detroit, Brock found that his superior, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost had ordered British forces to adopt a defensive posture in the hopes that the conflict could be settled diplomatically. As a result, an armistice was in place along the Niagara which allowed van Rensselaer to receive reinforcements. A major general in the New York militia, van Rensselaer was a popular Federalist politician who had been appointed to command the American army for politic purposes. As such, several regular officers, such as Brigadier General Alexander Smyth, commanding at Buffalo, had issues with taking orders from him. Preparations With the end of the armistice on September 8, Van Rensselaer began making plans to cross the Niagara River from his base at Lewiston, NY to capture the village of Queenston and the nearby heights. To support this effort, Smyth was ordered to cross and attack Fort George. After receiving only silence from Smyth, van Rensselaer sent additional orders demanding that he bring his men to Lewiston for a combined assault on October 11. Major General Stephen van Rensselaer. Public Domain - National Gallery of Art Though van Rensselaer was ready to strike, severe weather led to the effort being postponed and Smyth returned to Buffalo with his men after being delayed en route. Having spotted this failed attempt and received reports that the Americans might attack, Brock issued orders for the local militias to begin forming. Outnumbered, the British commanders forces were also scattered along length of the Niagara frontier. With the weather clearing, van Rensselaer elected to make a second attempt on October 13. Efforts to add Smyths 1,700 men failed when he informed van Rensselaer that he could not arrive until the 14th. Opposing the American advance were two companies of British troops and two companies of York militia, as well as a third British company on the heights to the south. This last unit possessed an 18-pdr gun and a mortar which were located in a redan halfway up the heights. To the north, two guns were mounted at Vroomans Point. Around 4:00 AM, the first wave of boats moved across the river under the leadership of Colonel Solomon van Rensselaer (militia) and Lieutenant Colonel John Chrystie (regulars). Col. van Rensselaers boats landed first and the British soon raised the alarm. The British Respond Moving to block the American landings, British troops under Captain James Dennis opened fire. Col. van Rensselaer was quickly hit and put out of action. Captain John E. Wool of the 13th US Infantry took over and pushed into the village with the aid of American artillery firing from across the river. As the sun rose, British artillery began firing on the American boats with great effect. As a result, Chrystie was unable to get across as his boat crew panicked and returned to the New York shore. Other elements of Lieutenant Colonel John Fenwicks second wave were forced downstream where they were captured. At Fort George, Brock, concerned that the attack was diversion, dispatched a few detachments to Queenston and rode there to see the situation himself. In the village, American forces were contained in narrow strip along the river by the artillery fire from the redan. Though wounded, Col. van Rensselaer ordered Wool to take a force upstream, ascend the heights, and take the redan from behind. Arriving at the redan, Brock sent most of the troops guarding it down the slope to aid in village. As a result, when Wools men attacked, Brock was forced to flee and the Americans took control of the redan and its guns. Brock Killed Sending a message to Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe at Fort George, Brock requested reinforcements to block the American landings. Due to the redans commanding position, he immediately resolved to recapture it with those men on hand. Leading forward two companies of the 49th Regiment and two companies of York militia, Brock charged up the heights assisted by aide-de-camp Lieutenant Colonel John MacDonell. In the attack, Brock was struck in the chest and killed. Though outnumbered, MacDonell pressed the attack and pushed the Americans back to the edge of the heights. The British assault then faltered when MacDonell was hit. Losing momentum, the attack collapsed and the Americans forced them to fall back through Queenston to Durhams Farm, near Vroomans Point. Between 10:00 AM and 1:00 PM, Maj. Gen. van Rensselaer worked to consolidate the position on the Canadian side of the river. Ordering the heights to be fortified, he placed Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott in command with Brigadier General William Wadsworth leading the militia. Despite the success, Van Rensselaers position was tenuous as only around 1,000 men had crossed and few were in cohesive units. Disaster on the Heights Around 1:00 PM, reinforcements arrived from Fort George, including British artillery. Opening fire from the village, it made crossing the river hazardous. On the heights 300 Mohawks began attacking Scotts outposts. Across the river, the waiting American militia could hear their war cries and became reluctant to cross. Arriving on the scene around 2:00 PM, Sheaffe led his men on a circuitous route to the heights to shield them from the American guns. Frustrated, van Rensselaer re-crossed to Lewiston and worked tirelessly to convince the militia to embark. Unsuccessful, he dispatched a note to Scott and Wadsworth giving them permission to withdraw if the situation warranted. Abandoning their field works, they constructed a barricade at the top of the heights. Attacking at 4:00 PM, Sheaffe met with success. Hearing the Mohawk war cries and fearing massacre, Wadsworths men retreated and soon surrendered. His line collapsing, Scott fell back, ultimately retreating down the slope above the river. With no escape and the Mohawks, angry over the loss of two chiefs, in pursuit, Scott was forced to surrender the remnants of his command to Sheaffe. Following his surrender, around 500 American militia who had fled and hid emerged and were taken prisoner. Aftermath A disaster for the Americans, the Battle of Queenston Heights saw 300 killed and wounded, as well as 958 captured. British losses totaled 14 killed, 77 wounded, and 21 missing. Native American casualties 5 killed and 9 wounded. In the wake of the fighting, the two commanders agreed on truce to treat wounded. Defeated, van Rensselaer resigned and was replaced by Smyth who bungled two attempts at crossing the river near Fort Erie.

Causes of the Latin American Revolution

Causes of the Latin American Revolution As late as 1808, Spains New World Empire stretched from parts of the present-day western US to Tierra del Fuego in South America, from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean. By 1825, it was all gone except for a handful of islands in the Caribbean- broken into several independent states. How could Spains New World Empire fall apart so quickly and completely? The answer is long and complicated, but here are some of the essential causes of the Latin American Revolution. Lack of Respect for the Creoles By the late eighteenth century, the Spanish colonies had a thriving class of Creoles (Criollo in Spanish), wealthy men and women of European ancestry born in the New World. The revolutionary hero Simon Bolivar is a good example, as he was born in Caracas to a well-to-do Creole family four generations of whom who had lived in Venezuela, but as a rule, did not intermarry with the locals. Spain discriminated against the Creoles, appointing mostly new Spanish immigrants to important positions in the colonial administration. In the audiencia (court) of Caracas, for example, no native Venezuelans were appointed from 1786 to 1810. During that time, ten Spaniards and four creoles from other areas did serve. This irritated the influential Creoles who correctly felt that they were being ignored. No Free Trade The vast Spanish New World Empire produced many goods, including coffee, cacao, textiles, wine, minerals and more. But the colonies were only allowed to trade with Spain, and at rates advantageous for Spanish merchants. Many Latin Americans began selling their goods illegally to the British colonies and after 1783, U.S. merchants. By the late 18th century, Spain was forced to loosen some trade restrictions, but the move was too little, too late as those who produced these goods now demanded a fair price for them. Other Revolutions By 1810, Spanish America could look to other nations to see revolutions and their results. Some were a positive influence: The American Revolution (1765–1783) was seen by many in South America as a good example of elite leaders of colonies throwing off European rule and replacing it with a more fair and democratic society- later, some constitutions of new republics borrowed heavily from the U.S. Constitution. Other revolutions were not as positive. The Haitian Revolution, a bloody but successful uprising of slaves against their French colonial owners (1791–1804), terrified landowners in the Caribbean and northern South America, and as the situation worsened in Spain, many feared that Spain could not protect them from a similar uprising. A Weakened Spain In 1788, Charles III of Spain, a competent ruler, died and his son Charles IV took over. Charles IV was weak and indecisive and mostly occupied himself with hunting, allowing his ministers to run the Empire. As an ally of Napoleons First French Empire, Spain willingly joined with Napoleonic France and began fighting the British. With a weak ruler and the Spanish military tied up, Spains presence in the New World decreased markedly and the Creoles felt more ignored than ever. After Spanish and French naval forces were crushed at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, Spains ability to control the colonies lessened even more. When Great Britain attacked Buenos Aires in 1806–1807, Spain could not defend the city and a local militia had to suffice. American Identities There was a growing sense in the colonies of being separate from Spain. These differences were cultural and often a source of great pride among Creole families and regions. By the end of the eighteenth century, the visiting Prussian scientist Alexander Von Humboldt (1769–1859) noted that the locals preferred to be called Americans rather than Spaniards. Meanwhile, Spanish officials and newcomers consistently treated creoles with disdain, maintaining and further widening the social gap between them. Racism While Spain was racially pure in the sense that the Moors, Jews, gypsies and other ethnic groups had been kicked out centuries before, the New World populations were a diverse mixture of Europeans, Indians and blacks brought in as slaves. The highly racist colonial society was extremely sensitive to minute percentages of black or Indian blood. A persons status in society could be determined by how many 64ths of Spanish heritage one had. To further muddle things up, Spanish law allowed wealthy people of mixed heritage to buy whiteness and thus rise in a society that did not want to see their status change. This caused resentment within the privileged classes. The dark side of the revolutions was that they were fought, in part, to maintain a racist status quo in the colonies freed of Spanish liberalism. Final Straw: Napoleon Invades Spain 1808 Tired of the waffling of Charles IV and Spains inconsistency as an ally, Napoleon invaded in 1808 and quickly conquered not only Spain but Portugal as well. He replaced Charles IV with his own brother,  Joseph Bonaparte. A Spain ruled by France was an outrage even for New World loyalists: Many men and women who would have otherwise supported the royalist side now joined the insurgents. Those who resisted Napoleon in Spain begged the colonials for help but refused to promise to reduce trade restrictions if they won. Rebellion The chaos in Spain provided a perfect excuse to rebel and yet not commit treason. Many Creoles said they were loyal to Spain, not Napoleon. In places like Argentina, colonies sort of declared independence, claiming they would only rule themselves until such time as Charles IV or his son Ferdinand was put back on the Spanish throne. This half-measure was much more palatable to those who did not want to declare independence outright. But in the end, there was no real going back from such a step. Argentina was the first to formally declare independence on July 9, 1816. The independence of Latin America from Spain was a foregone conclusion as soon as the creoles began thinking of themselves as Americans and the Spaniards as something different from them. By that time, Spain was between a rock and a hard place: The creoles clamored for positions of influence in the colonial bureaucracy and for freer trade. Spain granted neither, which caused great resentment and helped lead to independence. Even if Spain had agreed to these changes, they would have created a more powerful, wealthy colonial elite with experience in administering their home regions- a road that also would have led directly to independence. Some Spanish officials must have realized this and so the decision was taken to squeeze the utmost out of the colonial system before it collapsed. Of all of the factors listed above, the most important is probably  Napoleons invasion of Spain. Not only did it provide a massive distraction and tie up Spanish troops and ships, it pushed many undecided Creoles over the edge in favor of independence. By the time Spain was beginning to stabilize- Ferdinand reclaimed the throne in 1813- colonies in Mexico, Argentina, and northern South America were in revolt. Sources Lockhart, James, and Stuart B. Schwartz. Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.Lynch, John.  Simà ³n Bolà ­var: A Life.  2006: Yale University Press.Scheina, Robert L.  Latin Americas Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899.  Washington: Brasseys, 2003.Selbin, Eric. Modern Latin American Revolutions, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2018.